basic FUNCTION
| released from gut endocrine L cells in response to glucose, regulates appetite, insulin secretion, and gut motility |
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counteracting the glucose-lowering action of insulin by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis (glucagon) |
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raising the blood sugar level (glucagon) |
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playing an important role in initiating and maintaining hyperglycemic conditions in diabetes (glucagon) |
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being a ligand for a specific G-protein linked receptor whose signaling pathway controls cell proliferation (glucagon) |
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acting as a potent stimulator of glucose-dependent insulin release (GLP1) |
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playing important roles on gastric motility and the suppression of plasma glucagon levels (GLP1) |
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may be involved in the suppression of satiety and stimulation of glucose disposal in peripheral tissues, independent of the actions of insulin (GLP1) |
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having growth-promoting activities on intestinal epithelium (GLP1) |
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may also regulate the hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA) via effects on LH, TSH, CRH, oxytocin, and vasopressin secretion (GLP1) |
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increasing islet mass through stimulation of islet neogenesis and pancreatic beta cell proliferation and inhibiting beta cell apoptosis (GLP1) |
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acting as a potent insulin secretagogue (GLP1) |
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stimulating intestinal growth and up-regulates villus height in the small intestine, concomitant with increased crypt cell proliferation and decreased enterocyte apoptosis (GLP2) |
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playing a key role in nutrient homeostasis, enhancing nutrient assimilation through enhanced gastrointestinal function, as well as increasing nutrient disposal (GLP2) |
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e, blood p. incretin hormone that has a wide range of effects on glucose metabolism and cardiovascular function (e.g., improving insulin sensitivity, reduction in appetite, modulation of heart ratressure and myocardial contractility) |
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significantly reducing food intake by inhibiting gastric emptying (oxyntomodulin) |
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may modulate gastric acid secretion and the gastro-pyloro-duodenal activity (glicentin) |
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may play an important role in intestinal mucosal growth in the early period of life (glicentin) |
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involved in the activation of PAX4 (Brun 2008) |
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GCG- activation of the SOCS-3 pathway, which antagonizes the IL6-mediated increase in STAT-3 signaling, is involved in the reduction of inflammation-induced proliferation |
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secreted in a dose-dependent manner to reduce intestinal motility and enhance proximal fat absorption |
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protects mesenteric endothelium from injury during inflammation |
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directs human embryonic stem cell differentiation into insulin-producing cells via hedgehog, cyclic adenosine monophosphate, and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase pathways |
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incretin hormone that has a wide range of effects on glucose metabolism and cardiovascular function (e.g., improving insulin sensitivity, reduction in appetite, modulation of heart rate, blood pressure and myocardial contractility) |
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glucose-stimulated secretion of GCG and PYY is reduced by a sweet taste antagonist, suggesting the functional involvement of gut-expressed sweet taste receptors in glucose-stimulated secretion of both peptides in humans |
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CDX2 and NKX6-2, are involved in the regulation of GCG expression and the genesis of GCG-producing cells |
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GCG is a key component of glucose homeostasis by counteracting the effect of insulin |
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hormone secreted postprandially from the L-cells of the small intestine and regulating glucose homeostasis |
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suppresses the development of atherosclerosis by inhibiting macrophage function |
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induces macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype, which may contribute to the protective effects of GCG against diabetes and cardiovascular diseases |
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suggested to be involved in macrophage activation and polarization |
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controls glucose, energy, and lipid metabolism at least in part via FGF21-dependent pathways |
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promotes angiogenesis in human endothelial cells in a dose-dependent manner, through the AKT1, SRC and PKC pathways |
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is a potent glucoincretin hormone |
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alters in an integrated manner protein networks in cytokine-exposed human pancreatic islets while protecting them against cytokine-mediated cell death and dysfunction |
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though its primary function is to serve as an incretin, GCG reduces gastrointestinal motility |
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increases ER-mitochondria communication in VSMC, resulting in higher mitochondrial activity |
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endogenous GCG acts on paraventricular nucleus to suppress feeding |
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plasma levels of GCG are significantly associated with both systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels |
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GCG plays a pivotal role in glucose homeostasis through its receptor GCGR |
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GCG peptide-expressing neurons can alter feeding, metabolic rate, and glucose production independent of their effects on hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activation, aversive conditioning, or insulin secretion |
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is a nutrient-sensitive hormone secreted from enteroendocrine L cells within the small and large bowel |